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The Gulag—a vast array of Soviet concentration camps that held millions of political and criminal prisoners—was a system of repression and punishment that terrorized the entire society, embodying the worst tendencies of Soviet communism. In this magisterial and acclaimed history, Anne Applebaum offers the first fully documented portrait of the Gulag, from its origins in the Russian Revolution, through its expansion under Stalin, to its collapse in the era of glasnost. Applebaum intimately re-creates what life was like in the camps and links them to the larger history of the Soviet Union. Immediately recognized as a landmark and long-overdue work of scholarship, Gulag is an essential book for anyone who wishes to understand the history of the twentieth century.

Winner of the 2004 Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction.

Finalist for the 2003 National Book Award, Nonfiction.

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Pt. 1

The Origins of the Gulag, 1917-1939

1

Bolshevik Beginnings

3

2

"The First Camp of the Gulag"

18

3

1929: The Great Turning Point

41

4

The White Sea Canal

58

5

The Camps Expand

73

6

The Great Terror and Its Aftermath

92

Pt. 2

Life and Work in the Camps

7

Arrest

121

8

Prison

146

9

Transport, Arrival, Selection

159

10

Life in the Camps

183

11

Work in the Camps

216

12

Punishment and Reward

242

13

The Guards

256

14

The Prisoners

280

15

Women and Children

307

16

The Dying

334

17

Strategies of Survival

344

18

Rebellion and Escape

390

Pt. 3

The Rise and Fall of The Camp-Industrial Complex, 1940-1986

19

The War Begins

411

20

"Strangers"

420

21

Amnesty - and Afterward

445

22

The Zenith of the Camp-Industrial Complex

460

23

The Death of Stalin

476

24

The Zeks' Revolution

484

25

Thaw - and Release

506

26

The Era of the Dissidents

527

27

The 1980s: Smashing Statues

552

Epilogue: Memory

564

App

How Many?

578

Notes

587

Bibliography

637

Glossary

655

Text and Illustration Permissions

659

Index

661

Anne Applebaum is a columnist and member of the editorial board of the Washington Post. A graduate of Yale and a Marshall Scholar, she has worked as the foreign and deputy editor of the Spectator (London), as the Warsaw correspondent for the Economist, and as a columnist for the online magazine Slate, as well as for several British newspapers. Her work has also appeared in the New York Review of Books, Foreign Affairs, and the Wall Street Journal, among many other publications. She lives in Washington, D.C., with her husband, Radek Sikorski, and two children

Biography

Anne Applebaum is a columnist and member of the editorial board of The Washington Post.

She began working as a journalist in 1988, when she moved to Poland to become the Warsaw correspondent for the Economist. She eventually covered the collapse of communism across Central and Eastern Europe, writing for a wide range of newspapers and magazines.

Returning to London in 1992, she became the Foreign Editor, and later Deputy Editor, of the Spectator magazine. Following that, she wrote a weekly column on British politics and foreign affairs, which appeared at different times in the Daily Telegraph, the Sunday Telegraph, and the Evening Standard newspapers. She covered the 1997 British election campaign as the Evening Standard's political editor. For several years, she wrote the "Foreigners" column in Slate magazine.

Her first book, Between East and West: Across the Borderlands of Europe, described a journey through Lithuania, Ukraine and Belarus, then on the verge of independence. Her second book, Gulag: A History, narrates the history of the Soviet concentration camp system and describes daily life in the camps. It makes extensive use of recently-opened Russian archives.

Over the years, her writing has appeared in The Wall Street Journal, The Financial Times, The International Herald Tribune, Foreign Affairs, The Boston Globe, The Independent, The Guardian, Commentaire, Suddeutsche Zeitung, Newsweek, The New Criterion, The Weekly Standard, The New Republic, The New York Review of Books, The National Review, The New Statesman, The Times Literary Supplement and the Literary Review, among others. She has appeared as a guest and as a presenter on many radio and television programs, among them BBC's Newsnight, The Today Progamme, The Week in Westminster, as well as CNN, MSNBC, CBS and Sky News.

Anne Applebaum was born in Washington, D.C. in 1964. After graduating from Yale University, she was a Marshall Scholar at the London School of Economics and St. Antony's College, Oxford. In 1992 she won the Charles Douglas-Home Memorial Trust award for journalism in the ex-Soviet Union. Between East and West won an Adolph Bentinck prize for European non-fiction in 1996. Her husband, Radek Sikorski, is a Polish politician and writer. They have two children, Alexander and Tadeusz.

Author biography courtesy of Anne Applebaum's official web site.

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不过，想要孩子的女囚犯也大有人在，但是她们的命运同样悲惨。人们多次提到那些在劳改营里生孩子的女人的自私和唯利是图，与此形成对照的是哈娃·沃洛维奇的故事。沃洛维奇是一九三七年被捕的政治犯，她在劳改营里非常孤独，因此考虑生一个孩子。尽管哈娃并不特别爱孩子的父亲，叶列昂诺拉还是于一九四二年出生在一个没有母亲专用设施的劳改营里：

"那里有三个母亲，在营房里给了我们一个自己的小房间。臭虫像沙子一样从屋顶和墙上往下掉；我们整夜都要从孩子们身上把它们掐死弄掉。白天我们必须出去干活儿，把婴儿留给我们能够确定不去干活儿的老年女犯照看；她们总是偷吃我们留给孩子的食物，一点也不感到害臊。"

然而，沃洛维奇写道，

“整整一年间，每天晚上我都坐在孩子的小床旁边，把臭虫一个个掐死并且默默地祈祷。我祈求上帝，哪怕把我的苦难延长一百年，也不要让我与我的女儿分开。我祈祷将会与她一起获释，即使因此成为乞丐或者残废。我祈祷我能把她抚养成人，即使为此我不得不向人卑躬屈漆乞求施舍。但是上帝没有回应我的祈祷。当我的宝宝刚刚开始学步时，当我刚刚听到她所说的第一句话——那一句美妙温馨的‘妈妈’——时，不顾冬天的严寒，他们把衣衫褴褛的我们塞进一辆货车转送到了‘母亲劳改营’。在那里，我的长着满头金色卷发的矮胖小天使很快变成一个苍白的幽灵，眼睛下面有乌青的阴影，嘴唇全部都烂了。”

沃洛维奇最初被安排在一个林业劳动队，后来又被派到一个锯木厂干活儿。晚上，她带回去一小捆木柴送给托儿所的保育员。作为交换，她被允许在正常探视时间之外去看女儿。

“我见过保育员早晨叫孩子们起床。她们总是连拉带拽硬把孩子从冷冰冰的床上弄起来……对孩子们又打又骂。她们脱掉孩子们的睡衣，用冰冷的水给她们洗漱。孩子们甚至不敢哭喊。他们像老人一样轻轻的抽着鼻子，发出轻微的叫声。

这种让人难受的声音天天都从小床上发出。已经大得可以坐起来或者...

也许出人意料的是，古拉格输出政策最为持久的影响发生在欧洲以外。在中苏关系最紧密的五十年代初期，苏联“专家”帮助中国建立了几个劳改营，还在抚顺附近的一个煤矿组织了劳改队。中国的劳改营至今仍然存在，尽管它们与当年建立时所仿效的斯大林式劳改营几乎已经没有一点相似之处。它们仍然是强制劳动的地方——就像斯大林的古拉格系统那样，在其中服刑往往伴随着一段流放——但是，中国劳改营的负责人不大受劳动定额和中央生产计划的困扰。相反，他们的精力集中在“教育改造”的严格形式上。在当局看来，与囚犯制造的产品相比，囚犯的赎罪和囚犯向党仪式性的忏悔即使不是更加重要，至少也是同样重要。

男女囚犯混在一起有可能比刑事犯与政治犯混在一起的后果严重得多。严格地说，这是不允许的：在船上，男女囚犯应当分开关押。实际上，看守可能接受贿赂允许男犯进入女犯船舱，从而造成严重的后果。“科雷马电车”—发生在轮船上的轮奸—在整个劳改营系统闹得沸沸扬扬。叶莲娜·格林克是一名幸存者，她描述了被轮奸的经过：

他们在电车“售票员”的指挥下开始强奸……听到“停止玩乐”[кончай базар]的命令之后不情愿地爬起来，让位给身边跃跃欲试的下一个人……死去的女人被拖走，堆在门口。他们往那些奄奄一息的女人身上泼水，使她们恢复知觉，接着，轮奸再次开始。

一九五一年五月，“明斯克”号[在整个科雷马以“大电车”而臭名昭著]上受害妇女的尸体被抛进大海。看守甚至没有记下死者的姓名……据格林克所知，从来没有任何人因在这些押解船上强奸而受到惩罚。波兰少年雅努什·巴尔达赫对这个说法表示同意。一九四二年，他发现自己上了一条开往科雷马的轮船。当一伙刑事惯犯准备袭击女囚犯的船舱时，他就在现场，他眼看着他们把分隔男女船舱的铁栅栏切开了一个大口子：

很快，从这个口子赶过来一些女人，那些男人撕掉她们的衣服。几个家伙立即开始强奸，没有一个女人幸免。我能看见受害者雪白的身体挣扎着，她们使劲踢腿，用手抓男人的脸。女人们撕咬、喊叫、痛哭。强奸者回手毒打她们……放开女人之后，一些块头较大的强奸者转身来到床铺搜寻男孩子。接着，这些青少年受到残害，他们也被打趴在地，流着血不停地哭求。其他囚犯没人试图制止强奸：“几百个男人从床上低头看着强奸的场面，但是没有一个人试图干涉。”巴尔达赫写道，只是在上甲板的看守把水泼向船舱时，强奸才会停止。几个死去和受伤的女人随后被拖了出去。没有人受到惩罚。“

任何读过但丁《神曲》的人都会说，”一名幸存下来的囚犯写道，“地狱就在那条船上。”

变化以令人迷惑的速度发生——但是，对此感到最为迷惑的似乎是使苏联开始分崩离析的那个人。最终，这是戈尔巴乔夫最大的盲点：赫鲁晓夫明白，勃列日涅夫明白——只有“人民的敌人”的孙子和公开性的倡导者戈尔巴乔夫没有意识到，全面而真诚地讨论苏联历史最终将会动摇苏联统治的合法性。

德国哲学家马丁·海德格尔的名声由于他草率地公开支持纳粹、由于他在希特勒实施主要暴行之前所产生的一阵热情而受到了严重损害。另一方面，法国哲学家让-保罗·萨特的名声却没有因其在战后年代始终坚定支持斯大林主义而受到丝毫损害。在这期间，有关斯大林暴行的大量证据对于任何感兴趣的人来说均唾手可得。“因为我们不是……，”萨特曾经写道，“所以描写苏联的劳改营不是我们的责任；如若没有具有社会意义的重大事件发生，我们就有冷眼旁观的自由，而不必去争论这一制度的性质。”在另外一个场合，他对阿尔贝·加缪说：“像你一样，我也觉得这些劳改营令人不能容忍，但是我认为，天天在资产阶级的报刊上利用它们大做文章的行为同样令人不能容忍。”

三十年代这里发生过可怕的饥荒，在那场饥荒中，斯大林害死的乌克兰人比希特勒屠杀的犹太人还要多。可是在西方，到底有多少人记得它？毕竟，这样杀人害命太——太乏味，而且明显缺乏戏剧性。

所有人都会对佩戴卐字徽章的想法深恶痛绝。可是，却没有人对T恤衫或者帽子上的……图案表示反感。当一次大屠杀的象征令我们充满恐惧时，另一次大屠杀的象征却让我们微笑面对。

书籍介绍

The Gulag—a vast array of Soviet concentration camps that held millions of political and criminal prisoners—was a system of repression and punishment that terrorized the entire society, embodying the worst tendencies of Soviet communism. In this magisterial and acclaimed history, Anne Applebaum offers the first fully documented portrait of the Gulag, from its origins in the Russian Revolution, through its expansion under Stalin, to its collapse in the era of glasnost. Applebaum intimately re-creates what life was like in the camps and links them to the larger history of the Soviet Union. Immediately recognized as a landmark and long-overdue work of scholarship, Gulag is an essential book for anyone who wishes to understand the history of the twentieth century.

Winner of the 2004 Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction.

Finalist for the 2003 National Book Award, Nonfiction.